By Moomal Sethar
The year 1649 left a remarkable yet distressing imprint on British politics. Negating the principle of Divine Right was the execution of Charles I, whilst the preceding English Civil War sent shockwaves amongst both royalists and parliamentarians, inspiring the creation of the infamous ‘World Turned Upside Down’ ballad. Given the subsequent fruition of dissenting groups, some of whom advocated for common ownership of land, the abolition of the monarchy, and even women’s suffrage, the hyperbole may be an accurate way of labelling such chaos. Whether these events were an applaudable shift towards democracy, or a sign of Judgement Day, it is indisputable that they were pivotal in catalysing Margaret Fell’s success as a pioneer of women’s freedoms within theological realms.
https://the1642goodwyfe.wordpress.com/2012/03/05/the-world-turned-upside-down/
As members of the established gentry, Fell and her then-husband, Thomas, were no strangers to the aforementioned groups. Together, they organised assemblies in their family home to provide dissenters with a safe refuge to discuss their ‘ungodly’ sentiments. One of these dissenters was George Fox, the founder of the Religious Society of Friends (also known as the Quakers), who believed that a direct experience with Christ is possible without a hierarchical system. Upon listening to Fox, Fell testified that it had “open[ed] [her] understanding” on religious scriptures, incentivising her to adopt Quakerism. From then on, Fell laid the groundwork for the expansion of Quaker prominence and the advocacy for women’s rights within religious spheres. Her socio-economic status allowed her to host women-led assemblies, organise missions, and provide financial aid to the families of those who were persecuted, turning Swarthmoor Hall, her home, into the de-facto headquarters of Quakerism.
https://www.swarthmoorhall.co.uk/
Her 1650s epistles, which were letters that expressed ideas and guidance to communities, were essential in motivating Friends: In the Preface, Fell advises readers to “cleave to the blessed Light and Truth of the living God,…, and believe in it”, repeating similar messages throughout. It is tempting to claim that such phrases are indistinguishable from the typical zeal of the time, and thus lack radical sentiments. Whilst that may be true, it must be noted that Fell was not required to write specifically in favour of women’s freedoms to be a pioneer for the cause – rather, she simply had to showcase her ability to write. Along with a tiny fraction of women who had the temerity to publish their works, Fell, simply by confirming her literacy, had already established her place in a male-dominated industry. Even more pivotal were her letters to associates in Europe and America, which would later help spread Quaker influence globally: What started in a communal space in Swarthmoor Hall would end up travelling the world.
Needless to say, Fell’s Quaker campaign encountered setbacks. The Stuart Restoration in 1660 was accompanied by an uprising by the radical ‘Fifth Monarchists’ who attempted to overthrow the newly appointed Charles II, providing justification for tighter restrictions on dissenting groups. What followed was an avalanche of religious persecution implemented by laws such as the Act of Uniformity and the Quaker Act, introducing severe punishments for Quakers. Despite these seemingly insurmountable obstacles, Fell not only refused to relent, but rather intensified her efforts. After Fox and other leading figures were imprisoned, Fell interceded for their release, and even travelled to London to petition Charles II for religious freedom.
Fell herself was imprisoned at Lancaster Castle between 1664 and 1668. Ironically, she used this time to write one of her most infamous works: In Womens Speaking Justified (1666), she argues for the right of women to express themselves within religious settings, citing well-known examples from both the Old and New Testaments where women conducted influential endeavours. Interestingly, Fell also refutes perennial perceptions of women being associated with Original Sin. She cites that although the Serpent tempted Eve, ultimately leading to both men and women descending into “Transgression and Disobedience”, in turn, God instilled “Enmity between the Woman and the Serpent”. To this, Fell logically applies the adage, ‘the enemy of my enemy is my friend’, arguing that men who attempt to silence women in religious atmospheres are mouthpieces for the Serpent. Such assertions were essential in weaving the first, theological defences of women speaking in the Church. Certainly, women-led missions and assemblies were commendable; however, Fell understood the importance of substantiating her argument using the very scripture that the population regarded as the ultimate source of moral authority.
https://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/fell/speaking/title-page.jpeg
Undertakings like meetings, missions, and motivational messages helped solidify the Quaker movement, ensuring its resilience. The end of the century saw the movement finding an escape from the labyrinth of restrictive laws: The Conventicle Act of 1670, which imposed penalties for attending non-conformist assemblies, had a negligible impact on the Quakers’ influence, allowing them to anomalously survive well past their 1650s inception.
By the end of Stuart rule, at least within her own lineage, Fell had already inspired the next generation: Her daughters, Sarah and Isabel, pursued diverse interests, from becoming an accountant for the Women’s Quarterly Meeting to travelling across Europe to spread the Quaker cause. Undoubtedly, the group’s commitment towards gender equality stretched well into the 19th century, with prominent activism in the women’s suffrage movement, notably at the first Women’s Rights Convention in New York in 1848. The recognition Fell received earned her an honorific title as the ‘Mother of Quakerism’, epitomising her ability to wield matriarchal power in a patriarchal society, indeed by drafting the blueprints for women’s rights in the 17th century and beyond.
References and Further Reading
Quakers in the World, Margaret Fell, accessed 10th July 2024, available at https://www.quakersintheworld.org/quakers-in-action/14/Margaret-Fell.
Marjon Ames, “The Correspondence of Margaret Fell and the Quakers”, Early Modern Letters Online, accessed 10th July 2024, available at http://emlo-portal.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/collections/?catalogue=margaret-fell-and-the-quakers.
Melinda Wenner Bradley, “Margaret Fell: ‘Mother of Quakerism’”, Philadelphia Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends, accessed 12th July 2024, available at https://www.pym.org/margaret-fell-mother-of-quakerism/.
James Quinn, “The Life of Margaret Fell”, USHistory.org, accessed 14th July 2024, available at https://www.ushistory.org/penn/margaret_fell.htm.
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